The Bulgarian Middle Ages
The Medieval Period marks the establishment of the Bulgarian state on the Balkan Peninsula. Previously, these lands were ruled by the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantium.
During the 4th to 6th centuries, numerous non-Roman migrating tribes—Goths, Huns, Slavs, Bulgarians, and Avars—were drawn to the rich lands south of the Danube River. They launched devastating raids to loot and capture prisoners. As a result, the population of the Byzantine Empire declined sharply. People gradually retreated to mountainous areas, remote centers, and fortified cities in the south, seeking refuge behind fortress walls.
In 681, the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparuh, defeated Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV and crushed his army. After the decisive battle at Ongala, the Byzantine emperor and the Bulgarian khan signed a treaty recognizing Bulgarian rule over these lands.
For nearly three and a half centuries, the Bulgarian state grew strong and expanded southward and westward. A dense network of settlements emerged, including walled royal centers, unfortified settlements, and fortresses. Culture and literacy flourished, and trade developed. Only in 1018, after 50 years of war, did the Byzantine Empire grow strong enough to conquer Bulgaria and reclaim its former territories.
The period from 681 to 1018 is known as the First Bulgarian Kingdom, or the Early Middle Ages.
Byzantine rule over the Bulgarian lands lasted from 1018 to 1186. The medieval Bulgarian state was restored following a successful uprising led by the brothers Peter and Asen, who established Tarnovgrad (modern Veliko Tarnovo) as the capital.
The restoration of the Bulgarian state in 1186 occurred amid a complex and dynamic international political situation. The West organized crusades against the expanding Islamic world, while the Christian Church was in a state of schism (division) between Constantinople and Rome. Bulgarian rulers faced threats not only from crusader knights but also from the Tatars. Meanwhile, the Serbian state grew increasingly powerful in the western Balkans. The central government's authority was further challenged by ambitious feudal lords.
Despite this complex situation, the Second Bulgarian State (Tsardom), with its capital in Tarnovgrad, became an important center of the Orthodox world. It produced many architectural monuments and works of painting, sculpture, crafts, and literature that spread throughout the region.
In the 14th century, new invaders appeared in the Balkans—the Ottomans. They quickly became a major threat to the Christian nations, especially after the Battle of Chernomen in 1371. The Ottomans captured Tarnovo in 1393 and the Tsardom of Vidin in 1396, marking the end of the Second Bulgarian State.